Corrections, retractions and appeals

Last updated 2 November 2026

Corrections

When a published article contains an error that does not invalidate it, the editor issues a correction notice, shown at the top of the article. Errors in the article's metadata (such as the title, abstract or author details) are fixed in a new version; every earlier version stays available with its checksum. The review text and its references are not edited after publication, because the published assessment was made from exactly that text: a textual error is described in the notice, and a substantially corrected review is assessed again as a new submission.

Expressions of concern

When there are serious doubts about an article that are not yet resolved, the editor may attach an expression of concern while investigating.

Retractions

An article is retracted when its findings cannot be relied on, for example because of fabricated or misrepresented sources, false declarations about how it was produced, or infringement. A retracted article normally stays at the same address with a prominent retraction notice explaining the reason, so that anyone who cited it can see what happened. In exceptional cases, access to some or all of its content may be restricted or removed where the law requires it, or where infringement, privacy, confidentiality, personal safety, serious harm or another overriding legal or ethical reason justifies it. The landing page and bibliographic record then remain where lawful, explaining what was done without republishing the restricted material.

Appeals

Authors may appeal an editorial decision, and anyone may report a problem with a published article, by writing to the editor at [email protected]. Please name the article number and the claim or reference concerned. Every report is read by a human; we aim to reply within 14 days.